And That

And That's The Way It Was: Top News Stories of the Decade

While The 1950s Most Wanted doesn’t purport to be a book of “history” writ large, a certain amount of background may be necessary to give context to everything contained within. To that end, here is an overview of some of the events that had grabbed the headlines throughout the era. To those seeking a thorough understanding of what went down back then and why, you’d do better to look elsewhere, quite frankly. But if you like your knowledge to be a mile wide and an inch deep, dive right in!

1) Ex-State Department official Alger Hiss found guilty of perjury – January 21st, 1950

Much traction for otherwise unfounded accusations of rampant subversion in the US State Department came from the conviction of this former New Dealer. Even now, the case remains as contentious as ever, with conservatives and liberals still lining up on opposing sides of the issue. Hiss’s credentials seem custom-made to draw the ire of the right – he was an Easterner, tight with the artistic and intellectual community; he was a
lawyer by training; he served at the arm of FDR at Yalta; and he was a key man in establishing the UN Charter. He led a blemish-free career of public service until retiring to head the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1946. Not long after, he was summoned before HUAC (House Committee on Un-American Activities), being accused of committing espionage as a Communist mole. Hiss vehemently denied the charges and
demanded to confront his accuser. Whittaker Chambers, an admitted ex-party member, told investigators that some years back, he had acted in collusion with Hiss to spirit purloined State Department documents out of the capitol and to the Soviets.

Learning his accuser’s identity, Hiss told the Committee that he had known Chambers as George Crosley, a free-lance writer, for a few years back in the thirties. He further stated that he had loaned Crosley money and sold him a car, in addition to other favors, with Crosley never bothering to settle the debt. Hiss further stated that unless evidence was brought forth and the accusation retracted, he would sue Chambers for libel. The latter,
egged on by Committee member Richard Nixon, repeated his accusation, setting the scene for a court case. Unfortunately, the charges brought against Hiss were for perjury in denying he was a Communist before the Committee. (The statute for espionage had expired, or he would’ve been charged for that as well.) The burden was put on Hiss to prove he hadn’t lied, since HUAC put all their money on Chambers. The first trial ended
in a hung jury; the second found Hiss guilty. He was sentenced to five years and ended up serving forty-four months. All efforts to have the conviction thrown out and get a new trial were denied, though he did eventually get his law license back. He wrote a book on the case, rebutting the charges one by one. (Documents released in the seventies showed that the FBI in fact had withheld evidence favorable to him.) Hiss continued to proclaim
his innocence until his death in 1996, while Nixon used the case to boost his career.

2) War in Korea – June 25th, 1950

Our involvement in the Korean conflict came about by a tragic mis-reading of America’s resolve to stay out of Far East squabbles. The statement from Truman administration officials that Korea was “outside the US defense perimeter” was taken as tacit disinterest in defending the non-Communist stronghold lying largely south of the thirty-eighth parallel. Aggression was further instigated by the Soviets in general and Mao Zedong of Red China in particular, with full understanding that Chinese troops were prepared to jump in and support North Korean troops as needed. This fact seemed to be recognized by everyone but the commander of Allied UN troops, General Douglas MacArthur. After the UN demand that North Korean forces return to their borders went unheeded, US troops entered the fray, distinguishing themselves at once by bombing the South Korean army and civilian refugees. Green troops going up against well-trained and armed North Koreans suffered a steady stream of setbacks throughout most of the summer. Not until the invasion at Inchon in September did the US stem the tide of losses, re-capturing Seoul and pushing north of the thirty-eighth parallel. This was met by the influx of Chinese troops in November. MacArthur’s unwise vow to end the conflict by Christmas, coupled with Truman’s saber-rattling of the atom bomb, intensified the fighting.

The deadliest week of the war began on November 26th, with a total of 3,628 American servicemen killed in action. (It couldn’t have helped that Korea was suffering through its worst winter in a century.) While the UN hammered out cease-fire resolutions, combatants found themselves taking, losing, and re-taking the same piece of ground over and over again. MacArthur’s penchant for ignoring orders finally forced Truman to relieve him in
April of 1951, a highly unpopular move at the time. By summer, the MLR (main line of resistance) was established, and as truce talks continued intermittently, the public at home would become familiar with battle names like White Horse Hill, Heartbreak Ridge, and Pork Chop Hill. A new kind of warfare, unfamiliar to Americans, was taking place – a war of attrition where the enemy sent wave after wave of troops to their death, replacing
them as quickly as they fell. In December of 1952, a campaign pledge was filled when newly-elected US President Eisenhower visited Korea (though it wasn’t as if he planned to take command). After weary months of bloody stalemate, a cease-fire was at last signed on July 27th, 1953. The cost of the war to America would be 54,246 dead, with another 8,000 MIA. Fatalities inflicted included 1,500,000 enemy troops. Over a quarter million South Korean troops and untold civilian casualties further inflated the price for this largely forgotten war. Fighting to a draw was a heretofore unknown experience for the American military, who vowed to never let it happen again.

3) The attack on President Truman – November 1st, 1950

The issue of Puerto Rican independence asserted itself once World War II wound down. President Truman sought to revitalize the island’s depressed economy in 1948 by giving tax breaks to US companies that relocated there, not long after the populace secured the right to choose their own governors. Among the islanders, opinion was split whether to favor a change in status from colony to commonwealth, or to assert complete autonomy
altogether. Those favoring the latter position were most virulent in their demands, going so far as violence to make their point. One day after a pro-Nationalism uprising in Puerto Rico was viciously suppressed, a couple of members of an extremist independence group in New York decided to take action. Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola traveled by train to Washington, seeking the murder of Harry Truman to draw attention to their cause.
Well-armed and well-dressed, the only element their plan lacked was common sense. They staked out the Blair House on the 31st, getting a feel for the security in place. In fact, the Truman’s were quite vulnerable to assault, having taken up residence in diplomatic quarters across Pennsylvania Avenue from the White House, which was in the midst of extensive renovations. Had the would-be assassins bothered to read the paper, they could have gleaned detailed insight into Truman’s scheduled comings and goings. Instead, they opted for a full frontal assault, planning on shooting their way in.

Without even knowing if he was home, the two men approached the residence from opposite directions at about 2:20pm. Collazo, a novice with guns, had been coached by his partner earlier but this did not prevent him from attempting his first shot with the safety on. The resounding “click” drew the attention of the security contingent in place, triggering a three-minute gunfight. When it was over, Collazo was seriously wounded and Torresola was dead, fatally shot by an officer who himself was mortally wounded. At the height of the battle, Truman stuck his head out the window to see what the noise was about, only to be waved back in. Collazo was tried and sentenced to death; the president commuted him to life in prison in 1952. His mercy may have emboldened the three men and one woman from the same group who on March 1st, 1954, entered the visitor’s gallery at the US House fully armed. Acting on an impulse many voters felt but never realized, they opened fire on the floor, shooting five Congressmen before being brought down by security. All five recovered, and the attackers themselves faced life in prison.

4) Brown vs. The Board of Education decision – May 17th, 1954

In the eyes of her school district in 1951, eight-year old Linda Brown was colored. This meant that the Topeka, Kansas native wasn’t permitted to attend the all-white school near her house; she had to be bussed a mile away to more appropriate facilities. Her father, the Reverend Oliver Brown, was not happy that his daughter had to cross railroad tracks twice a day to get to that the bus, among other issues. The doctrine regarding race and
education in place since 1896 held that segregation was perfectly legal, so long as black and white kids were educated in facilities that were “separate but equal”. In practice, the distinction was ludicrous. The education received in black schools was in no way comparable to that of white (though they did manage to perfect the “separate” issue). Brown, abetted by the NAACP, took the Board of Education to court, asserting that the forced division between the races was having a detrimental effect on black kids. Studies showed black children educated in integrated New York schools faired much better than their Southern cousins in test scores and measurable self-esteem. Though the local courts listened with interest to the arguments, they ultimately ruled in favor of the school board. These defeats led the way for appeals to the highest court in the land.

Segregationists were pretty certain things would go their way with the newly installed Chief Justice Earl Warren. After all, it was Warren who in 1942 as California Attorney General sent thousands of Japanese-Americans to internment camps, not exactly making him a Civil Rights champion. The case was argued before the court by future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall. Warren mostly sat silent, listening, but inwardly he recognized the merits of the case. He then decided that the ruling must be unanimous, which he was able to ensure once he agreed with dissenters that integration must come gradually. On May 17th, the Court stunned the country and much of the world with the finding that segregation was inherently unequal. For as much jubilation as there was among supporters of civil rights, something dark was unleashed with the anger and fear of segregationists upset at seeing what they saw as their way of life being cast aside. This exacerbated rage would have repercussions for years to come, beginning with the
lynching of fourteen-year old Emmett Till in 1955, and leading to the everyday sight of police dogs, fire hoses, and National Guard troops on school grounds. Not our finest hour.

5) The Doomsday Blueprint – 1955

While certainly not public knowledge at the time, this window into government thinking gives a pretty good indication of how close to the apocalypse we were believed to be. Faced with the very real possibility of a nuclear attack occurring at any time, President Eisenhower dispatched a group of planners to devise what came to be known as The Doomsday Blueprint, a plan for business as usual following the annihilation of the nation’s capital and/or major cities. The entire enterprise was predicated upon a total disregard for the public will; it instead focused on bureaucratic survival. Foremost, the plan called for evacuating the first family via helicopter and spiriting them away to a mountain bunker in Virginia, where they’d be joined by the Cabinet officers and Supreme Court. (No specifics on Nixon, though.) Congress would be relocated underground in West Virginia, occupying facilities that even featured a replica of the Capitol’s great hall for joint-sessions. (Any survivors would probably need to plan a few “joint” sessions,
too – har har.) Both the Pentagon and Federal Reserve had bunkers of their own. The imposition of martial law was a given; word that all was well with the Eisenhower Administration would be spread via a pre-recorded public service announcement featuring the President and (for extra star-power) Arthur Godfrey. Something called the Bomb Alarm would keep the president abreast of nuclear events as they unfolded. It consisted of a map that displayed data received from sensors spread out all over America, registering nuclear hits as they occurred – which cities survived, which didn’t.

Ike envisioned the traumatized surviving populace to be regarded as inmates in one grand refugee camp. Private property and enterprise would essentially be nationalized for the greater good; survivors would subsist on strict rationing of available foodstuffs. (Although the Federal Reserve, at least, was permitted bone china.) One bright spot was the US Mail’s waiving the necessity of postage stamps, though they did suspend Special
Delivery. Notably absent within the reams of contingency plans and regulations produced were provisions for housing; for burying the dead; and for state and local government. Annual drills for the evacuation of bureaucrats were held once the Blueprint was drawn up. (One run-through was memorable for the Presidential party’s escape convoy being blocked by a Virginia pig farmer.) All of this effort put into preparing for war (instead of
waging peace) did not become public until 1992. Some of the underground bunkers have since been converted to use for document storage and office space.

6) President Eisenhower has a heart attack – September 23rd, 1955

At sixty-two when first elected, Eisenhower was the second oldest Chief Executive in the country’s history. (The oldest, William Henry Harrison, died thirty days into the job.) His health had been long the subject of speculation; in 1949 and again in 1953, three months into his term, he had fallen ill from what gave every indication of being some sort of cardiac episode. Still, perhaps out of pride, not to mention the political consequences, any
hint of serious trouble was downplayed. By late 1955, he was looking forward to another run in the coming year, at sixty-six. Still, he had already quit a four-pack a day smoking habit and felt reasonably sure his health would hold out for another four years, giving himself respite from his duties when possible. He was vacationing in Colorado in late September, enjoying his usual hobbies of fishing, painting, playing cards, and golfing. On the day in question, he found himself engaged in the latter, when he became agitated by a persistent game of phone tag with his Secretary of State that disrupted his game. During the afternoon, he began to feel discomfort, attributing it to the raw onion he’d had on his burger at lunch. The “indigestion” continued, and without dinner, Ike turned in early. He awoke at 2:30am, complaining of chest pains. His physician was called, and upon an examination, he diagnosed a “left anterior myocardial infraction”, ten hours after the fact.

Taking a lesson from the illness suffered by Woodrow Wilson in 1919, Ike ordered a full disclosure of his medical reports. He felt that, in the face of the upcoming campaign, being open would head off rumors of a more serious condition from getting started. His pledge for candor got him more than he bargained for when his doctor reported to the press that the patient had enjoyed “a successful bowel movement”, much to Ike’s chagrin. Still, they kept under wraps knowledge that the cardiac damage was worse than at first diagnosed. His recovery was slow, delayed further by the patient’s wish to defer his release until he could walk unaided from the hospital. On Veteran’s Day, appropriately, he bid goodbye to the staff and completed his recovery at his Gettysburg farm. Though he would appear as vigorous as ever during his re-election bid in 1956, further illnesses awaited, including ileitis that year and a stroke in 1957. In the end, Eisenhower would surprise many by not only surviving his second term, but living on another eight years.

7) Soviets Launch Sputnik – October 4th, 1957

Confirming fears that the Soviets had pulled ahead of us in technological advances was their launch of the first man-made object to orbit the Earth. While some hailed the dawn of a new era in exploration, others saw it as an illustration of how vulnerable this country truly was – the one hundred and eighty four pound satellite could just have easily contained a warhead. The US government had actively repatriated the top German rocket scientists after the war, but despite the best Nazi know-how, our program had yet to get off the ground – literally. The Soviets, recognizing the attention and curiosity that their achievement would garner, purposely transmitted the tracking tones on a frequency low enough for amateur radio operators (who were numerous) around the world to pick up on. The ominous “beep-beep” more than anything struck fear into the hearts of those who felt
doomsday was at hand. Underscoring their lead, Sputnik II was launched nearly a month later, this time much heavier and carrying a live (at the time) dog named Laika.

It wasn’t purely for lack of interest that the American program wasn’t getting anywhere. The scientists involved, as embodied by Werner von Braun, felt their efforts were being hamstrung by the Eisenhower administration, which saw the diplomatic necessity to make the distinction between a military and civilian use of space technology. The Russians were held to no such encumbrance and were quite frank about their application of the new advances to “defense” interests. Now under the gun, the American Vanguard program was sped up; a planned test for December 6th, 1957, was changed to a full blown launch. The eyes of the world were now on America’s response. What they got to see was the massive rocket rise three feet in the air before dropping in a spectacular explosive fireball. (Now no one could say the US program had yet to catch fire.) Vanguard II met with the same result in February of 1958, but thankfully, Explorer I was successfully put into orbit on January 31st. Eventually, the two competing US space programs were fused into NASA. Though America would in time win the technological race, the psychological victory in being first went to the Russians, increasing anxieties among the US populace.

8) Castro Takes Cuba – January 1st, 1959

For Americans throughout the 1950s, Cuba was the exotic locale of choice to vacation in. It had resorts, casinos, fine hotels and lots of entertainment, being the birthplace of the Mambo (as well as Ricky Ricardo). American businesses thrived, as did a healthy vice industry controlled by the Mob. Havana was a tropical Vegas, but few gave a thought to the power at the top. A despot named Fulgencio Batista took control of the island in 1952
during a bloodless coup. While running Cuba like a Mafia Don, he sought to stay in the good graces of America during the Cold War, severing ties with the Soviet Union and establishing cooperation with Washington. In return, the US turned a blind eye to his suppression of enemies, his enriching himself at public expense, and his trampling of the Cuban constitution. The populace never warmed to his leadership, however, and with this general lack of support, any charismatic insurgency stood a chance.

Enter Fidel Castro. The American-educated lawyer organized his first attempted overthrow in 1953, but was soundly beaten. How minor a threat Castro was regarded by Batista is evident by his cutting short Castro’s fifteen-year sentence in May of 1955 as part of a general amnesty. Castro regrouped, steadily gaining a guerilla force and popular support from those hostile to Batista’s ruling style. Beginning in 1956, Castro’s forces attacked from the mountains, badgering Batista’s forces. The latter launched an all-out assault on the rebels in 1958, but success eluded him. Finally, with America’s tacit support withdrawn, Batista fled the island on New Year’s Day 1959, taking half the national treasury with him. Castro was swept into power amidst much rejoicing and, initially at least, American support. This would evaporate once his true Marxist colors emerged, particularly after he took over American business interests and booted the Mob off his island. In one stroke, he created two powerful enemies that would spend the next several years conceiving of ever more fanciful ways to eliminate the leader, that Cuba could return to her “good old days”.

9) Alaska and Hawaii join the Union – January 3rd and August 21st, 1959

The years 1912 through 1959 saw the longest stretch of uninterrupted flag design in US history, immediately followed by one of the briefest. Though this country held a number of territories, commonwealths, and controlling interests around the world, few foresaw the day that another star would be added to the familiar forty-eight star design. But years of changing interests would finally lead to a national make-over in boundaries. Purchased
from Russia in 1867, for years the land was known as “Seward’s Folly”, in dis-honor of the Secretary of State responsible for swinging the deal. But the discovery of gold in the 1890’s raised the fortunes of the meteorologically unfriendly region. Ensuing discoveries of other natural resources ripe for exploitation made the government take a second look throughout the twentieth century. The first proposal for statehood actually came in 1916,
but no one was much interested, least of all the Alaskans. During the thirties, President Roosevelt toyed with the idea of offering homesteads to farmers hard hit by the depression in an effort to populate the colony. Around the same time, its proximity to the rising might of Japan was noted, with calls for military installations to keep tabs on things. Only post-war, with the Soviets replacing Japan as a concern, did this happen.

Most of the fifties saw Alaskan statehood bottled up in Congress, with Republicans unnerved at the possibility of losing tenuous control of the Senate by the admission of a potentially Democratic state. The impasse might have gone on for years had not Hawaii began to exert its own wishes. Both states were now equally pushing for admission, with Hawaii meeting considerable business and political resistance. Both Republicans and Southern Democrats (who were fearful that the multi-cultural Hawaii would support civil rights legislation now safely stalled) were loath to tip the status quo. But in the end, a deal was brokered, in deference to public pressure and hard lobbying. Alaska would be admitted first, ending up (surprise!) in the Republican column, to be followed months later by Hawaii, with Democratic representation. In the months between, the flag went from six rows of eight stars to seven rows of seven stars, before changing over to the present day design in late summer.

10) The “Kitchen Debate” – July 24th, 1959

One of the best remembered episodes of the Cold War was the pairing of Soviet Premier Khrushchev and Vice-President Nixon during the opening of a trade exhibit in Moscow. While touring a mock-up of a “typical” American home, neither politician could resist the chance for trading insults. What resulted was less a debate than an international episode of The Bickersons, the thrust of which was, “anything you can do, we can do better.”
Nixon, fully aware of the attention to be generated by going “toe to toe” (as he put it) with the Soviet leader, was keen on placing himself at the level of statesman for his 1960 run for President. Khrushchev, for his part, had remarked that McCarthy might be dead, but his spirit lived on. He too welcomed a chance to give the renowned Red-baiter a public come-uppance. As they walked through the exhibit, surrounded by media, both
were very conscious of the world’s eyes upon them. Here is some of what was said:

Nixon: I want to show you this kitchen…In America, we like to make life easier for women…

Khrushchev: Your capitalistic attitude toward women does not occur under Communism…Don’t you have a machine that puts food into the mouth and pushes it down?...I hope I have not insulted you.

Nixon: I have been insulted by experts.

Khrushchev: In Russia, all you have to do to get a house is to be born in the Soviet Union…In America, if you don’t have a dollar, you have a right to choose between sleeping in a house or on the pavement. Yet you say we are the slave to Communism…(puts his arm around a Soviet worker) Does this man look like a slave laborer? With men with such spirit, how can we lose?

Nixon: …You don’t know everything.

Khrushchev: …you don’t know anything about Communism except fear of it.

Nixon: There are some instances where you may be ahead of us, for example in the development of…rockets for…outer space; there may be some instances in which we are ahead of you – in color television, for instance.

Khrushchev: No, we are up to you with this too.

Nixon:…you never concede anything.

Khrushchev: You’re a lawyer of Capitalism; I’m a lawyer for Communism. Let’s kiss.

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